Native Americans in the Era of Imperial Expansion and Revolution, 1750-1783: A Historical Perspective
Facing the storm: Unraveling the untold stories of Native American history during the late 1700s
Dragging the curtain back on the era of imperial competition and the Age of Revolution, we dive headfirst into the uncharted waters of Native American history. Though usually overshadowed or left out of the narrative, this period saw complex interactions between Native Americans and the European forces that attempted to colonize their lands.
American Indians, indigenous to North America prior to European settlement, did not meekly submit to the encroaching tide of conquest. They actively adapted, resisted, and influenced the course of history amid the fierce struggle for power among European empires. Daniel Richter, in his book Facing East from Indian Country, encourages us to view events through Native eyes, challenging us to reconsider the Euro-centric distortions in our understanding of this period.
In the tumultuous late 18th century, Europe's imperial powers thirsted for control over the world's land and resources. This era was also marked by the surge of democratic ideals and the establishment of new political institutions, an Age of Revolution that engulfed not only Europe but America as well. While Native Americans have long been relegated to the roles of passive victims, they were in fact active players in this turbulent epoch, creating a niche for themselves amidst the clash of empires.
The Newberry Library, with its rich trove of resources, offers us a fascinating glimpse into this untold tale, painting a vivid picture of indigenous life during the late 1700s from their unique vantage point. Maps illustrate the shifting borders and contested territories of the time, records of crucial conferences reveal the delicate balance of power and changing alliances, and letters provide insights into the efforts to communicate amidst the chaos of imperial warfare and revolution.
The Middle Ground:As the British began to push westward, the French, with their focus on trade and resource extraction, sought to maintain a precarious equilibrium with the diverse array of Native nations in the Great Lakes region. In this so-called "middle ground," Algonquian-speaking tribes and the French carved out a space of mutual accommodation, mediated by gifts, cultural accommodation, and diplomacy. However, the British threatened this fragile harmony as they aggressively expanded their reach.
As relations with the French soured, Native Americans found themselves caught between competing imperial forces, often employing shrewd tactics to maintain their power and independence. Algonquian nations forged relationships with the French that granted them the role of a "father" who would mediate conflicts, offer protection, and distribute presents. But as British influence spread, these benevolent ties crumbled, as English land speculators built forts in the Ohio Valley and the region erupted into conflict.
Native Americans in an Imperial World:The clash between the British and French saw Native Americans venture into the fray, solidifying alliances and forming pan-tribal confederations in the face of encroaching Euro-American powers. The French and Indian War, known to Americans as the Seven Years' War, took on global dimensions as France, Britain, various Native American nations, and other European powers engaged in a brutal struggle that would culminate in a British victory. This victory, however, far from securing the future of the Native American presence in North America, only ignited the flames of relentless European expansion.
As British hegemony weakened during the early 1770s, a wave of impassioned patriotism swept through the colonies. Efforts by the metropole to collect taxes and enforce the Proclamation Line, a demarcation of lands set aside for Native American use, fueled resentment among the colonists. This rising tide of defiance would eventually lead to the declaration of American independence from the crown.
The American Revolution and the Shattered Alliance:The Revolution fractured many Native American communities, as debates over loyalty to the British or the American colonists shaped the tapestry of alliances. While some Native nations sided with the ideals of liberty and self-determination espoused by the rebels, many others chose to support the British, hoping that their continued alliance could stave off further encroachment.
The powerful Iroquois Confederacy found itself divided, with influential leaders such as Joseph Brant advocating fervently for war against the colonists, while others, like Skenandoa and Akiatonharonkwen, championed neutrality. In the end, four of the six nations chose to align with the British, Neolin's prophecies of striking down the “Execrable Race” of whites at last echoing out into the war torn world.
Pontiac's War:In response to the British assertion of control over their lands, a Native American confederation led by Pontiac rose to launch a fierce rebellion. Inspired by the teachings of religious leader Neolin, who urged the tribes to reject European culture and drive the whites from their lands, these Native forces launched a series of devastating attacks on British forts in the Ohio Valley and beyond. Tactics employed ranged from guerrilla warfare to outright diplomatic maneuvers, as Native forces sought to throw the British back and protect their lands.
The British response was characterized by callousness, with Jefferson Amherst, head of Indian relations, approving the use of smallpox-infected blankets as a weapon against the Native forces[3]. Mercenary forces, Native and white alike, perpetrated horrific atrocities against the Native population, further destabilizing the continent.
A Time of Change and Resistance:As the dust settled from the Revolution, Native American nations found themselves in a landscape fundamentally transformed by the rise of the United States. The balance of power that had once enabled them to skillfully navigate the shifting sands of imperial conflict was now shattered, as Native peoples found themselves unmoored and adrift in a sea of new alliances and expanding Euro-American power.
The Native American story during this period is a testament to their resilience, adaptability, and unyielding determination to preserve their lands, cultures, and traditions in the face of seemingly insurmountable odds. As we continue to trace their journey through time, we can better understand the complicated, multifaceted ways in which Native Americans have shaped and been shaped by the tumultuous history of our continent.
[1] Richter, D. (2001). Facing east from Indian country: A Native history of early America. Harvard University Press.[2] Calloway, C. (1995). The American revolution in Indian country: Crisis and diversity in Native American communities. Oxford University Press.[3] Dowd, G. E. (2002). War under heaven: Pontiac, the Indian nations, and the British Empire. Johns Hopkins University Press.[4] Nash, G. B. (2005). The unknown American revolution: The unruly birth of democracy and the struggle to create America. Viking.[5] Taylor, A. (2006). The divided ground: Indians, settlers, and the northern borderland of the American Revolution. Alfred A. Knopf.
- During the tumultuous late 1700s, Native Americans were not merely bystanders in the clash of imperial powers, but they participated actively through trade routes and diplomatic negotiations in the Great Lakes region, known as the "middle ground".
- The pursuit of education-and-self-development and learning was crucial for Native Americans as they navigated the complex world of European expansion, seeking to preserve their lands, cultures, and traditions amidst the Age of Revolution and the establishment of new political institutions in North America.
